GE CRx25P manuali

Ge CRx25P Brochure (114 pagine)

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Industrial Radiography

1

Image forming techniques

2

“Industrial Radiography”

3

Contents

4

Basic properties

11

2.2 X-rays

12

2.3 Gamma-rays (

12

2.5 Radiation energy-hardness

13

2.7 Penetrating power

14

2.8 Filtering (hardening)

15

2.9 Half-value thickness

15

3.2 Definitions

17

Radiation sources

18

Effective focal spot size

19

NDT equipment

21

5.2 High voltage generators

22

5.3 Megavolt equipment

23

5.4 Radioactive sources

24

6.1 Radiation images

27

6.2 Radiation filters

28

6.3 Intensifying screens

28

Steel and copper screens

29

Fluorescent screens

29

Fluorescent salt screens

29

Fluorometallic screens

29

(3.7-2.8)

30

The X-ray film

31

Developing the latent image

32

Density (optical)

32

Contrast

32

Gradient of the density curve

33

Average gradient

33

7.5 Film speed (sensitivity)

34

7.6 Graininess

34

Film types

35

Filmtype

36

8.2 Film type selection

37

8.3 Film sizes

37

Exposure chart

38

Fig. 1-9. Step wedge

39

Preliminary charts

40

FFD = focus-to-film distance

41

9.6 Relative exposure factors

42

9.7 Absolute exposure times

42

Method and answer

43

Example 2:

43

Processing and

44

10.4 Silver recovery

47

Defect discernibility

50

Inherent unsharpness

51

Total unsharpness

52

Selection of gamma source

53

Inverse square law

53

150 kV 80 kV

54

12.2 Useful film length

56

Image quality

57

Batch numberBatch number

58

13.3 List of common IQI’s

59

13.4 Position of the IQI

60

13.5 IQI sensitivity values

60

Film exposure

61

Film interpretation

63

15.2 The film-interpreter

64

15.3 Reference radiographs

64

Casting radiography

69

Digital Radiography (DR)

74

16.2 Digital image formation

75

Two-step digital radiography

76

The CR imaging plate

76

Image development

76

Scanners-Readers

76

CR cassettes

77

16.5.1 Detector types

78

16.5.2 Fill Factor

79

Limitations

80

Amorphous silicon flat panels

80

16.6.1 Exposure energy

81

Exposure parameters

82

Image quality definitions

82

Bit depth

83

Lateral resolution

84

Development of standards

84

Status of CR standards

85

Status of DR standards

85

Impact of standards

85

Standards for weld inspection

85

Corrosion detection

86

Weld inspection

86

16.12 Work station

87

Grey levels

88

1 Steel 3,5 3,5

89

2 3,5 1,3

89

Special

90

Tube heads

91

Magnification factors

91

System set-up

92

Effect of focal dimensions

92

17.3 Computer Tomography (CT)

94

Effect of defect orientation

95

Reverse engineering

95

CT metrology

95

Film Film

100

18.7 Flash radiography

102

19.2 Responsibilities

105

Fig. 2-19. Pendosis meter

107

19.7 Dose registration

108

19.8 Radiation shielding

108

European norms (EN-standards)

109

Literature and references

110

Acknowledgements

110

Appendices: tables and graphs

110

= minimum distance

111

Relative dose

112

Relative image quality DQE

112

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